Score contribution per author:
α: calibrated so average coauthorship-adjusted count equals average raw count
This paper introduces some novel approaches to formulate and estimate technical change (TC) nonparametrically in a variety of cases without estimating the underlying production technology that is usually specified by a production, cost or transformation function. The binding theme in all our formulations of TC is the use of the first-order conditions of profit maximization or cost minimization. The new TC measures are observation-specific due to their nonparametric nature.